Tamis-LeMonda-Preface

Preface: The Power of Change

Changing People The Greek philosopher Heraclitus famously stated that “the only constant in life is change.” Indeed, Heraclitus’s writings highlight a critical distinction between the words “being” and “becoming.” Being implies that people and things are fixed: the idea that we have somehow arrived at a destination, and who we are remains constant over time and space. Conversely, becoming signifies something much more exciting and brimming with potential, but perhaps disrupting as well: the idea that people, animals, nature, the world, are in constant flux. Nothing ever is. But everything is always becoming. Change is the norm. The principle of change lies at the core of developmen- tal science. Developmental researchers seek to understand how change occurs and why, especially over the years spanning conception to adolescence, when the body and mind rapidly transform. Our bodies change in size, shape, and capacity, with billions of cells dying each day to be replaced by billions of new ones. Our states and emotions are in constant flux over the course of a day, as we transi- tion from alertness to fatigue, hunger to satiety, and joy to anger. Change likewise defines our perceptual experi- ences. As we move about and interact with our environ- ments, what we see, hear, feel, smell, and sense. Change characterizes our thinking as we gain new knowledge and memories and revise our beliefs day to day and year to year. And relationships continually evolve as the people in our lives embark on new life paths. The parent-infant rela- tionship, as one example, looks markedly different than Notably, developmental scientists extend the study of change to the contexts of everyday life. People do not exist in vacuums. Rather, they interact with objects, spaces, and people in their family, school, community, and so on. Their interactions affect and are affected by changes in those set- tings. For example, children who experience supportive relationships with friends and teachers at school not only change in their own attitudes and behaviors—they also positively affect the people around them and the climate of the school community. As a result, the classroom that children depart in June is quite different from the one they the parent-adolescent relationship. Changing Environments

enter in September. Indeed, Heraclitus also observed that “no person ever steps in the same river twice.” The river (a metaphor for environment) is always flowing and ever changing. In short, to understand how children devel- op requires understanding the inseparable connection between person and context. Personal Changes Like all people, I continue to change in my relationships to others and as a developmental researcher. Over 30 years ago, I embarked on my PhD in Developmental Psychology and, a few years later, gave birth to Brittany. Christopher arrived in August, when I was a newly hired Assistant Professor at New York University. I began teaching two weeks later, because there was no maternity leave at the time, and we could not afford to forego my salary. Michael came along when my professional career was a bit more stable and my lab was bustling with research on infant learning and development. Over the years, I followed the path forged by millions of women as I attempted to master the art of juggling career and home life—research, cook- ing, grant writing, homework, teaching, soccer games, conferences, babysitters. Fortunately, my children had a highly involved father, who learned the art of juggling as well. He changed diapers, cooked meals, did laundry, cleaned, and taught our children how to play tennis and ski while working in the NYC Fire Department. The riv- ers of life were forever changing, yet for the most part, we managed to ride the waves. But then on the morning of September 11, 2001, my husband responded to a call to help at the Twin Tow- ers in New York City after terrorists had crashed planes into the buildings. He ushered people out of the towers that day as many of his friends and fellow firefighters perished. He dug out fragments of bodies and burnt badges for months on end, attended countless funerals, and suffered lung disease that forced him to retire at a young age. Our children also faced their share of trag- edies, losing adolescent friends to prison, drug over- doses, and car crashes. As I look back, I realize that the fascination of study- ing children was a source of strength that helped me to navigate rough waters. I accepted the fact that my

Preface   vii

Context and Culture Children develop in multiple interrelated contexts—the intrauterine environment and the contexts of family, peers, childcare, school, and neighborhood—all of which are subject to important cultural influences. In addition, biological context is integral to developmental process- es—for example, brain asymmetry channels language input to the left hemisphere from the start of life, and the universal and individual experiences of children cause the brain to develop in ways that make all children alike and each child unique. This theme—that development is the product of multiple interacting contexts—is system- atically integrated into every chapter of Child Develop- ment: Context, Culture, and Cascades . Students will learn that there is no such thing as development devoid of con- text or culture and that contexts are nested within other contexts: an infant regularly held in its father’s arms is next to a warm body in rooms that are more or less noisy and cluttered, and these nested contexts work together to affect the baby’s development. Similarly, culture infuses all aspects of development. Children from communities across the globe show strik- ing variations in their experiences and development while also following many shared developmental paths. How- ever, most of developmental psychology is grounded in a small subset of the world’s population of children. For example, popular motor milestone charts, based on the research of Arnold Gesell decades ago, draw from a hand- ful of U.S. children; the literature on language acquisition is grounded in monolingual children learning English; and most of what is known about children’s social skills (from attachment to peer relationships) is based on children from North America raised in nuclear families. In contrast, Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cas- cades includes many examples of the impressive range of human variation—communities where infants begin to walk at eight months of age or not until later in the sec- ond year; communities where children as young as four years care for siblings; and communities where school- ing is rare—with attention to the views and practices that contribute to such differences. At the same time, students are reminded of the balance between unique cultural practices and universal developmental processes. That is, most children babble before they produce their first words; most children transition from being wobbly to proficient walkers though the strength and postural control that come from practice in upright postures; and supportive and loving caregivers benefit the social development of all children, regardless of where they are raised. This pre- sentation of cultural breadth invites students to reflect on what is “universal” about human development, yet recog- nize that many assumptions about child development are rooted in their own experiences. Many child development texts place the important top- ics of context and culture in separate chapters, where they

children, my husband, and I were always becoming. The river we stepped in when our first child was born had long washed away, to be replaced by new waters, sometimes stormy, sometimes calm, but forever chang- ing. And so, my goal in writing this book is to give back to others what the field of child development has offered me: an appreciation and understanding of the sources In Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades , I seek to convey the wonder and awe of child development. In addition, I aim to inspire students to understand the pro- cess of change and to think about change through the eyes of a developmental scientist. To appreciate child development requires understand- ing the basics: What is changing and why? Accordingly, each chapter describes changes in a select domain of development at a specific time in childhood (the what) and considers the many forces that spur changes in chil- dren (the how). Within and across chapters, students will learn about interactions between biology and envi- ronment; the role of contexts (e.g., family, school, com- munity, and other contexts) in development; and how cultural views and practices infuse children’s everyday lives. Finally, because the path of a river is affected by the flowing waters that preceded it, students will come to appreciate how small changes can exert downstream effects on development in the process of developmen- tal cascades. Changing children swim in ever-changing waters that spill into the future. However, beyond providing the fundamentals of child development, the ultimate message of this book runs much deeper than words on a page. Students will see that answers to the “whats” and “hows” of change are both fundamental to science and hold a key to improv- ing the lives of children and families around the world. What Makes this Book Unique? Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades stands apart in the landscape of child development textbooks. Many otherwise excellent books were crafted years ago and, even if updated, are not systematically organized around topics at the forefront of developmental science: the roles of context and culture in development and developmental cascades. Furthermore, many texts glaze over research methods or relegate them to a highlighted box, rather than systematically incorporating research methods into core material so that students understand how scientists arrive at the conclusions they do. Finally, as someone who has long been fascinated by the study of how infants enter the world of communication through interactions with others, this book showcases the criti- cal area of language development in a dedicated chapter, rather than burying it under another domain. and consequences of life changes. Understanding Change

viii   Preface

remain isolated from critical material on developmental processes, or include the information as tag-on sentences buried in the main text. In contrast, Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades showcases the themes of con- text and culture in every chapter, with subheadings that underscore how family, peer groups, school, culture, and other influences contribute to developmental processes. Developmental Cascades The concept of a developmental cascade captures the idea that changes in one domain of development can reverberate across other domains and time. The theme of developmental cascades is woven into the fabric of Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades through dedi- cated sections in each chapter that illustrate such inter- connections. For example, changes in motor develop- ment, such as the ability to walk, spill over to domains of cognitive, language, and social development, as infants develop new ways of navigating their environments, expand their interactions with people around them, and begin to hear new sentences, such as “Don’t touch that!” Similarly, the developmental timing of puberty can affect adolescents’ interactions with peers and parents, sexual behaviors, and attitudes toward school. Thus, this book rejects artificial distinctions among skills and embraces the idea of a “whole child.” Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades addresses developmental cascades in a major heading at the end of most chapters, with subsections offering illus- trative examples of how changes in the area of develop- ment discussed in the chapter reverberate across other domains and time. This approach contrasts with existing books that either omit critical material around develop- mental cascades or provide limited coverage. Research Methods Most developmental textbooks present research meth- ods in an opening chapter on measurement and study design before offering students mere snapshots of meth- ods in later chapters. Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades , in contrast, includes a dedicated chapter on foundations, theories, and methods and also pro- vides chapter-specific overviews of the methods that researchers use to study different areas of development

at different periods of development. For example, the chapter on infant cognitive development describes look- ing-time studies (e.g., habituation); explains why such studies are a cornerstone of infancy research (because babies can’t tell researchers what they know or remem- ber); and tackles questions about how much researchers should infer about infant understanding from looking behaviors. The goal is to arm students with a thorough understanding of how to do research, and to then apply that knowledge to exercises at the end of chapters that ask students to design their own studies (for example) to address hypothetical questions. By learning and doing, students will come to appreciate how to tackle critical development questions with an eye toward age-appro- priate measures and methods relevant to the domain of interest. Dedicated Chapter on Language Development in Infancy The path to language is one of the most inspiring and frequently studied topics in child development. Typing the words “language” and “development” into scholarly search engines yields over 4 million hits (equivalent to hits for cognitive, social, and emotional development). More- over, a plurality of talks at professional conferences are dedicated to language development, and funding agencies have entire departments that review proposals to support such research. Perhaps most centrally, language skills spill over to all domains (think about the language required to engage with school material, foster friendships, and negotiate conflicts with parents). However, language remains the lonely stepchild in textbooks to date, typical- ly subsumed under cognitive development. In contrast, Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades includes a dedicated chapter that showcases the rapid changes to language during infancy and toddlerhood—as the cooing and babbling of young infants evolve into the words and sentences of toddlers. By delving deeply into key aspects of early language development, how researchers measure such skills, how language abilities change, and cascading influences to other domains, readers are equipped with foundational knowledge that scaffolds a deeper apprecia- tion of the language topics that are systematically expand- ed on in later chapters.

Features

Scope and Organization Like many other texts, Child Development: Context, Cul- ture, and Cascades adopts a chronological organization, with 16 chapters discussing specific “domains of devel- opment” under each “period of development” (language development in infancy, emotional development in early childhood, physical development in adolescence, and so on). This organization facilitates student learning by pro- viding digestible, targeted information; ensures balance of coverage across age periods; facilitates coverage of key themes (context, culture, cascades); and introduces stu- dents to research methods specific to each domain and age (e.g., measures used to assess infant cognitive devel- opment versus adolescent cognitive development). As noted, however, Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades goes beyond the traditional chronological orga- nization by incorporating dedicated sections to recipro- cal effects of development across different domains and reverberating effects of development over time. Thus, Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades balances chronological and topical approaches. Learning Tools Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades takes a serious approach to its subject matter, at a level appro- priate for most undergraduates, even for those who have not taken introductory psychology. Topics and key terms are introduced and clearly defined, so students can build on solid foundations as they progress through the text. Consistency in terminology, topics, and sub- headings across chapters (such as repeated “context” sections of family, school, and neighborhood) reinforce take-home messages and allow students to draw con- nections among chapters. Beyond the strong focus on clarity, readability, and consistency, all chapters include an array of learning tools designed to support and extend student learning. Chapter-Opening Tools • Chapter outline: Shows main headings and first- level subheadings to give students an overview of the chapter organization before they start reading.

• Chapter introduction: Introduces a brief story, case study, or description of current research encapsulating some of the major themes of the chapter, segueing into an overview of the chapter. Midchapter Tools • Learning Objectives: Connect to the major subheadings of the chapter and cue students to what they should be able to know and/or do after reading. • Check Your Understanding questions: Test students’ understanding of content related to Learning Objective sections (answers are available to Instructors on Oxford Learning Link). • Key terms and marginal glossaries: Bolded terms denote important topics and subtopics, research methods, and a wide range of specialized concepts, with each term clearly and explicitly defined when introduced. • Figures and tables: Provide strong visual and organizational support in the form of graphs, diagrams, charts, illustrations, and photos, accompanied by informative captions reinforcing key points and ideas. End-of-Chapter Tools • The Developmentalist’s Toolbox: Recaps the research methods discussed in the chapter, briefly describing the method and its purpose, to reinforce students’ research understanding. • Bulleted chapter summary: Summarizes the contents of main sections. • Thinking Like a Developmentalist questions: Present students with hypothetical situations (e.g., design a study to address a research question) to engage students in the application of chapter information. The Oxford Digital Difference The Oxford Digital Difference is the flexibility to teach your course the way that you want to. At Oxford Uni- versity Press, content comes first. We create high-quality, engaging, and affordable digital material in a variety of

x   Features

formats and deliver it to you in the way that best suits the needs of you, your students, and your institution. Oxford Insight Courseware Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades is avail- able powered by Oxford Insight. Oxford Insight delivers the trusted and student-focused content of Child Devel- opment: Context, Culture, and Cascades within powerful, data-driven courseware designed to optimize student success. Developed with a foundation in learning sci- ence, Insight enables instructors to deliver a personal- ized and engaging learning experience that empowers students by actively engaging them with assigned read- ing. This adaptivity, paired with real-time actionable data about student performance, helps instructors ensure that each student is best supported along their unique learn- ing path. Features of Oxford Insight include: • A dynamically personalized learning experience for each student, based on their own learning needs. Oxford Insight delivers adaptive practice sessions that function much like a human tutor for students. The content and focus of these sessions is based on student interaction with formative assessment that they encounter as they work through course content. • Improved reading retention with chapter content broken down into smaller “chunks” of content that are centered on specific Learning Objectives and accompanied by Formative Assessment activities. As students progress through chapter reading, they are periodically required to answer formative questions, allowing the platform to collect information along the way and adapt a personalized plan to help improve their learning. The practice plan is followed by a summative quiz to demonstrate learning, turning students from passive readers to engaged problem solvers. • A clear, customizable, query-based Learning Dashboard that displays powerful and actionable, real-time data on student performance. With the query-based Learning Dashboard, instructors can quickly answer questions like: ○ How often are my students visiting the course? • Developed with a learning-science-based course design methodology. Powered by Acrobatiq by VitalSource, a leading provider of adaptive learning solutions, Oxford Insight builds on years of research at Carnegie Mellon’s Open Learning Initiative that was aimed at discovering how best to optimize online learning for both students and instructors. ○ Which students are having difficulties? ○ Which objectives are my students having difficulties with?

Oxford Insight for Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades includes the following resources: • Research in Action videos: These short videos explore classic and current research in child development. They are accompanied by multiple choice questions that can be assigned (2–4 videos per chapter | ~2–5 minutes in length, although some are longer). • Concepts in Action videos: These short videos highlight important concepts in child development, bringing methods and concepts to life. They are accompanied by multiple choice questions that can be assigned (1–2 videos per chapter | ~2–3 minutes in length). • Cascades videos: These short videos, featuring the author, complement end-of-chapter sections on Developmental Cascades, emphasizing key points related to these important concepts (1 video per chapter| 3–5 minutes in length). • Context and Culture videos: These short videos, featuring the author, complement selected context and culture sections in chapters to emphasize key points (1–2 videos per chapter | ~3 minutes in length). • Data in Action: These interactive graphs enable students to manipulate independent and dependent variables relevant to chapter topics to see associations change in real time. For example, students will see side-by-side bar graphs representing 2 children high or low on an independent variable, with bar values rising or falling for the dependent variable of academic performance. Then, students can manipulate variables such as “motivation” or “stereotype threat,” which will change values on academic performance in line with the selected variable (e.g., bars representing performance will be high for the group high in motivation but low for those low in motivation). After observing effects, students will respond to multiple choice questions that can be assigned. Ancillaries for Instructors An extensive and thoughtful ancillary program offers instructors everything they need to prepare their course and lectures and to assess student progress, including suggested answers to the book’s Check Your Under- standing questions, an instructor ’s manual, lecture slides, figure slides, concepts in action clicker slides, and a test bank in Word, Respondus, and Common Cartridge formats.

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Oxford Learning Link Oxford Learning Link is your central hub for a wealth of engaging digital learning tools and resources to help you get the most of your Oxford University Press course material. Available online exclusively to adopters, the Oxford Learning Link includes all of the instructor resources that accompany Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades 1e. Suggested Answers to “Check Your Understanding” Questions These PDFs provide suggested answers from the author for all of the “Check Your Understanding” questions included at the end of learning objective subsections in the book. Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual, written by the author and based on her experience teaching the course, includes chapter outlines, descriptions of classroom activities/lecture launchers, and suggested video clips and descriptions. Lecture PowerPoints Complete lecture outlines for each chapter are available and ready for use in class. These include coverage of all important facts and concepts presented in each chapter.

Figure PowerPoints These include all of the figures presented in each chapter. Concepts in Action Real-Time Class Participation Activities To solve the problem of engaging students in large lec- ture classes, various questions, exercises, and activi- ties are available that engage students, asking them to respond in real time to prompts of various kinds (includ- ing knowledge and understanding checks). Professors will be able to use identifiers to track student responses and to see how they responded in real-time to facilitate discussion. Some activities enable students to experi- ence research studies first-hand, such as by responding to Stroop Task items or Implicit Association Tests of ste- reotypes, to see how their reaction times change on such tasks and to better understand the research material in chapters. Several activities are accompanied by Concepts in Action videos that more thoroughly explain the activi- ties and concepts under discussion. Test Bank A complete test bank provides instructors with a wide range of test items for each chapter, including multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, true/false, matching, short answer, and essay questions.

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I am indebted to my children, Brittany, Christopher, and Michael, who forever are the inspiration behind my fascination with child development. Through them, I came to understand first-hand that each child follows a unique developmental path. And I am deeply proud of the paths they each took—and continue to take— some straightforward and others marked by challeng- ing detours that define life and change. I am grateful to my husband, Richard, who has supported my career for decades; joined me in our co-juggling of family and career; and encouraged my dream to (finally) write a textbook. He put up with many headaches as I confronted the real- ity of how to find time to actually get words on the page (or 1,200 pages to be exact). Even when we took a vaca- tion, Rich was beside me on a lounge chair at the beach or looking out at the woods, as I perched my laptop on my knees to write whenever I could steal a few minutes. And as someone of Italian and Greek heritage, I have a very large family to thank. They all cheered me on even though they had no idea why I was taking so long: my wonder- ful sisters, Lisa, Jacqueline, and AnneMarie; brothers- and sisters- in-law; and nieces and nephews. My mother, who kept asking, “When in the world will your book finally be done?” passed away just before its completion, but I know her pride lives on, as does my father’s. I am indebted and forever thankful to two people who have been central to my professional development. Marc H. Bornstein, my doctoral mentor and continued colleague, introduced me to the awe of child develop- ment. Thank you for all you have done to encourage my thinking. And my dearest friend and colleague, Karen Adolph, has been by my side for over 20 years and shares with me a passion for understanding developmental pro- cesses. She continues to inspire me to think deeply about discovery science, the importance of description, and developmental cascades. Indeed, it takes a true friend and brilliant scholar to spend countless hours reading nearly every chapter, even while vacationing in Maine, and offering feedback that always bettered the science. To the extent that certain messages come alive in this book, Karen can be credited as a source of their energy. Of course, I had the fortune of working with the great- est team of supporters, the many talented individuals

at Oxford University Press who were instrumental in ensuring the book’s rigor, innovation, and successful completion. Thank you to Jane Potter, who persistently tracked me down at conferences to convince me to write this book. Although she hinted at the huge time drain the book would entail, she did not warn me enough. Still, it got done. That’s because the team at Oxford expected nothing short of excellence. I could not have been luckier landing the opportunity to work with Senior Develop- ment Editor Lisa Sussman, whose input each step of the way, across multiple chapter drafts, helped me to strike just the right balance of research depth, breadth, and readability. (Lisa, thank you for pushing me to explain complicated ideas in straightforward ways.) Thank you as well to Executive Editor Jessica Fiorillo; Media Editor Lauren Elfers; Production Editor Stephanie Nisbet; free- lance copyeditor Danna Niedzwiecki Lockwood; Edito- rial Assistants Ryan Amato and Malinda Labriola; Mar- keting Manager Joan Lewis-Milne; Marketing Assistant Ashendri Wickremasinghe; Production Manager Joan Gemme; Production Specialist and Book Designer Donna DiCarlo; Photo Research Editor Mark Siddall; Senior Pro- duction Editor Peter Lacey; Senior Production Editor of art Johannah Walkowicz; Freelance Development Edi- tor Carol Pritchard-Martinez; Permissions Supervisor Michele Beckta; Proofreader Jennifer S. Jefferson; and Tonia Cristofaro with help on various features of the book. Although I constantly lost track of who was doing what along the way, each person at Oxford displayed impressive professionalism and openness to new ideas that raised the caliber of the final product. Finally, I want to acknowledge the thousands of fami- lies and children who have participated in research at my lab at New York University and those who participate each and every day in developmental research around the world. It is an understatement to say that they are the source of every line in this book. Everything we know about children and the contexts of their development can be credited to the time that parents and children gener- ously contributed to the science of child development. Thank you for paying it forward. I hope that the knowl- edge generated by our work continues to support chil- dren and families everywhere.

Reviewers for Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades

Gina Abbott, Quinnipiac University Karen E. Adolph, New York University Jacobose Victor Ammons, Kansas City Kansas Community College Laura Anaya, Gonzaga University Adrienne Armstrong, Lone Star College Vanessa Bailey, College of the Sequoias Marie Balaban, Eastern Oregon University Patricia Berezny, Caldwell University Marilyn Bisberg, Fordham University Katrin Blamey, DeSales University Louisa Egan Brad, Bryn Mawr College Gina Brelsford, Penn State–Harrisburg Sarah Brenner, Central Michigan University Dawn Browder, Eastern New Mexico University Judy Bryant, University of South Florida Holly Buckley, University of La Verne Rebecca Bulotsky-Shearer, University of Miami Allison Butler, Bryant University Julie Campbell, Illinois State University Barbara Carl, Penn State University Jennifter Chaiyakal, Orange Coast College Tess Nicole Chevalier, Wake Forest University E. Namisi Chilungu, Georgia State University Alison Colbert, Eastern Michigan University Jessamy Comer, Rochester Institute of Technology Suzanne Cox, Beloit College Salvador Cuellar, Hudson County Community College Carmen Culotta, Wright State University Andrew Cummings, University of Nevada–Las Vegas Amy Dexter, Roosevelt University Rosanne Dlugosz, Scottsdale Community College

Flora Farago, Stephen F. Austin State University Michael Figuccio, Farmingdale State College Lisa Fozio-Thielk, Waubonsee Community College Sarah Frantz, Lehman College/CSI/CUNY Graduate Center

Malinda Freitag, University of Utah Dale Fryxell, Chaminade University Debra Garcia, CSULA Nathan George, Adelphi University

Karla Gingerich, Colorado State University Peggy Goldstein, Florida Atlantic University Karen Groth, Macomb Community College Miles Groth, Wagner College

Maria Guarneri-White, University of Texas–Arlington Oh-Ryeong Ha, University of Missouri–Kansas City Catherine Haden, Loyola University Phillip Hamid, CUNY Hunter College Shanta Hattikudur, Temple University Stephen Hill, Nazareth College Jameson Hirsch, East Tennessee State University Wendy Hope, St. Joseph’s College Donna Hoskins, Bridgewater College Julie Ivey, Baylor University Virginia Johnson, Biola University Maya Khanna, Creighton University Dennis Kirchen, Dominican University Nicholas Koberstein, Keuka College Lisa Anna Kovach, University of Toledo Kevin Ladd, Indiana University South Bend Kirsten Li-Barber, High Point University Caitlin Lombardi, University of Connecticut Donna Hayman Long, University of Maryland Eastern Shore Rebecca Lorentz, Marquette University Julie Markant, Tulane University

Stacey Doan, Boston University Dawn Dugan, Hunter College Naomi Ekas, Texas Christian University Susan Engel, Williams College

April Masarik, Boise State University Nicole McAninch, Baylor University

xiv   Reviewers

Robert McDermid, Missouri State University Brianna McMillan and spring 2021 students, Smith College Danielle Mead-Nykto, San Jose State University

Yoshie Sano, Washington State University Tanya Sharon, Mercer University Rebecca Shearer, University of Miami Karen Singer-Freeman, State University of New York–Purchase Jay Slosar, Chapman University Patrick Smith, Thomas Nelson Community College Dante Spetter, Harvard University Joan Steidl, Kent State University Amy Strimling, Sacramento City College Lisa Tafuro and spring 2021 students, Saint Joseph’s College of New York Susan Talley, Utah State University Peggy Thelen, Alma College Ingrid Tiegel, Carthage College Marilyn Toliver, John A. Logan College Beth Venzke, Concordia University Chicago Jennifer Vu, University of Delaware Kristin Walker, University of Memphis Shawn Ward, Le Moyne University Elsa Weber, Perdue Northwest Karl Wheatley, Cleveland State University Lisa White, Athens Technical College Karen Yanowitz, Arkansas State University William Yerger, Eastern University Sonia Yoshizasw, East Tennessee State University

Darcy Mitchell, Colby-Sawyer College Robert Moeller, Middlebury College Cathy Neimetz, Eastern University Judith Newman, Penn State University Simone Nguyen, University of North Carolina–Wilmington

Annette Nolte, Tarrant County College–Northwest Tim Oblad, Texas A&M University–Kingsville Grace Paradis, California State University–Stanislaus Evelyn Paz-Durocher, Los Angeles Community College Tiffany Pempek, Hollins University Debra Pierce, Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana Michelle Potter, Santa Rosa Junior College Elizabeth Purnell, Northern Virginia Community College

Meenal Rana, Humboldt State University Martha Ravola, Alcorn State University Maggie Renken, Georgia State University Chatee Richardson, Spelman College Leslie Rollins, Christopher Newport University Karl Rosengren, Northwestern University

Alison Sachet, Williams College Cindy Salfer, Ridgewater College

About the Author

Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda is Professor of Developmental Psychology in the Department of Applied Psychology at the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development at NewYork University, where she directs the Play & Language Lab (https://wp.nyu.edu/catherinetamislemonda/). She is a Fellow of the American Psychological Society and has served in various capacities (past and current) such as President of the International Congress of Infant Studies; member of the Governing Council of the Society for Research on Child Development; associate editor of Infancy and Journal of Experimental Psychology: General; and reviewer on editorial boards of several journals and panels of federal and foundation funding agencies. Tamis-LeMonda’s research focuses on infant and child language, communication, object play, literacy, and motor skill, and the roles of language input, home experiences, parenting, and culture in infant learning and development across domains. Tamis-LeMonda’s research has been funded by the National Science Foundation, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute of Mental Health, Administration for Children, Youth and Families, the LEGO Foundation, Ford Foundation, and the Robinhood Foundation. She has over 200 publications in peer-reviewed journals and books and co-edited the volumes Child Psychology: A Handbook of Contemporary Issues , 1st, 2nd, and 3rd editions (Psychology Press, 1999, 2006, 2016); Handbook of Father Involvement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Psychology Press, 2002; 2013); The Development of Social Cognition and Communication (Psychology Press, 2005); and the Handbook of Infant Development (Cambridge University Press, 2020). Her husband, Richard; children, Brittany, Christopher, and Michael; grandchildren, Lila and Zoe; and dog, Lucy, are a constant source of joy and a continual reminder to always find the time to take a break, go for a walk, host a holiday, do some cooking, and relish time with family.

Brief Table of Contents

PART 1: FOUNDATIONS CHAPTER 1 Goals, Theories, and Methods 1 CHAPTER 2 Heredity, Environment, and the Brain 51 CHAPTER 3 Prenatal and Postnatal Health and Physical Development 89 PART 2: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD CHAPTER 4 Perceptual and Motor Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 126 CHAPTER 5 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 170 CHAPTER 6 Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 210 CHAPTER 7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 249 PART 3: EARLY CHILDHOOD CHAPTER 8 Physical Development and Health in Early Childhood 292 CHAPTER 9 Cognitive and Language Development in Early Childhood 327 CHAPTER 10 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood 377 PART 4: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD CHAPTER 11 Physical Development and Health in Middle Childhood 421 CHAPTER 12 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 456 CHAPTER 13 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood 503 PART 5: ADOLESCENCE CHAPTER 14 Physical Development and Health in Adolescence 547 CHAPTER 15 Cognitive Development in Adolescence 587 CHAPTER 16 Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence 623

Contents

PART 1: FOUNDATIONS

Discovery-Based Science 32 Sampling 32 Methods: Gathering Data 33 Study Designs 36 Ensuring Scientific Rigor and Integrity 42 Validity 42 Reliability 43 Scientific Replicability and Transparency 44 Ethics in Research 46 Closing Thoughts: Setting the Stage 47 2 Heredity, Environment, and the Brain 51 Genetics and the Environment 52 Genetic Foundations 53 Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes 53 From Gametes to Human Beings 54 Mutations 58 Decoding the Genome 61 The Microbiome 62 ❚ Contexts of Environmental Influences on Gene Expression 63 How Do Genes and Environment Interact? 63 Epigenetic Principles: FromAnimals to Humans 64 Summing Up: The Library Metaphor 66 The Brain 67 Brain Anatomy and Function 67 Forebrain 68

The Goals of Developmental Science 2 Describing Development 3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Change: Coral Reef Fish or Frogs? 3 Differences among Children in Development 4 Developmental Stability 5 Explaining Development 6 Genes and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Seesaw 6 Developmental Cascades 7 Applying Developmental Science 9 Raising Children 9 Programs and Policies 10 Theoretical Orientations 11 Foundational Theories 13 Evolutionary Theory 13 Psychodynamic Theories 14 Behaviorism 17 Constructivism: Piaget’s Stage Theory 19 Lev Vygotsky and the Origins of Sociocultural Theory 21 Contemporary Theories 22 Nativist Approaches 22 Social Learning Theory 23 Bioecological Theories 26 Sociocultural Theories 28 Research in Developmental Science 30 Conducting Research 31 Hypothesis-Driven Research and the Scientific Method 31 1 Goals, Theories, and Methods 1 Information Processing Theories 24 Developmental Systems Theory 25

Midbrain and Hindbrain 70 Neurons and Glial Cells 71 New Ways to Study the Brain 72 Brain Development 74 How the Brain Changes 74 Periods of Brain Development 76

Contents

xviii

❚ Contexts and the Brain 77 Experience-Expectant Plasticity 77 Experience-Dependent Plasticity 79

Teratogens 100 Maternal Exercise and Nutrition 103 Maternal Prenatal Care 105 Maternal Psychological Functioning 106

Timing of Experience 80 Looking to the Future 82 Developmental Cascades 83 Closing Thoughts: Dismantling the Nature-Nurture Controversy 86 3 Prenatal and Postnatal Health and Physical Development 89 Conception and Prenatal Development 90 Conception 90 Influences on Conception 91 Fertility Treatments 92 Prenatal Development 93

Birth and Infant Health 107 Labor and Birth 107

Stages of Labor 108 Neonatal Health 109 Birth Complications 110 Contextual Influences on Infant Mortality and Birth Weight 111 Infant Brain Development 113 Infant Sleep and Nutrition 114 Sleep 114 Cultural Context of Infant Sleep 116 Nutrition and Breastfeeding 118 Context and Culture in Breastfeeding 119

Germinal Period 93 Embryonic Period 94 Fetal Period 96 ❚ Contextual Influences on Prenatal Development 100

Developmental Cascades 120 Closing Thoughts: The Dynamics of Development 123

PART 2: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

Perceiving Music 144 Perceiving Speech 145 From Perception to Meaning: Integration and Categorization 146 Perceptual Integration 146 Categorization 147 Motor Development 148

4 Perceptual and Motor Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 126 Perceptual Development 127 The Study of Perception in Infants 127 Early Theories 128 The Ecological Theory of Perception 129 Methods for Studying Infant Perception 131 Tasting and Smelling 133

The Study of Motor Development in Infants 148 Gesell and the Concept of Motor Milestones 149 Myrtle McGraw and Motor Practice 150 Esther Thelen and Dynamic Systems 151 Developments in Infant Motor Skill 152 Posture 152 Sitting 152 Reaching, Grasping, and Tool Use 153 Locomoting: Crawling, Cruising, Walking 156 ❚ Contexts of Motor Development 158 Home Context of Motor Development 158 Cultural Context of Motor Development 160 Developmental Cascades 162 Closing Thoughts: The Engines of Learning and Development 166

Taste and Odor Preferences 134 Contexts of Taste Perception 134 Looking 135 Acuity and Contrast 135 Perceiving Colors 137 Size and Shape Constancy 137 Perceiving Objects as “Whole” 138 Tracking Motion and Actions 139 Perceiving Depth 139 Face Perception 140 Contexts of Face Perception 142 Hearing 144 Loudness and Pitch 144

Contents   xix

5 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 170 Learning about the Physical World 171 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 171 Sensorimotor Substages 1–5 172 Mental Representation (Sensorimotor Substage 6): 18–24 Months 174 Challenges to Piaget That Inspired New Theoretical Orientations  176 Nativist Tests of Infant Core Capacities  177 Infant Understanding of Object Permanence 177 Infant Understanding of Solidity and Substance 180 Infant Understanding of Gravity and Support 180 Testing Core Capacity for Understanding Number  181 Challenges to Nativism 183 Developmental Systems Insights

6 Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 210 Describing Language Development 211 Phonological Development: Learning Speech Sounds 211 Perceiving and Discriminating among the Phonemes of One’s Language 212 Identifying the Phonemes that Comprise Words  212 Producing Sounds 213 Semantic Development: Learning Word Meaning 215 Understanding Sentences and Syntactic Bootstrapping  219 The Path to Producing Sentences  220 Pragmatic Development: Learning Communication Norms 220 Turn Taking 221 Attention to Nonverbal Social Cues 221 Explaining Language Development 222 Nativist Accounts of Language Development 223 Universal Grammar and the LAD 223 Cognitive Biases 224 Deaf Children and Sign Language 224 Critical Periods and the Case of Genie 225 Connectionist and Dynamic Systems Theory 226 Connectionist Theory 227 Dynamic Systems Theory 228 Sociocultural Theory 229 Scaffolding 229 Can Infants Learn Language from Screens? 230 ❚ Contexts of Language Development 230 Family Context of Language Development 230 Socioeconomic Context of Language Development 234 Childcare Context of Language Development 235 Multilingual Context of Language Development 235 Cultural Context of Language Development 239 Developmental Cascades 241 Closing Thoughts: Language Development is Much More than Language  245 Receptive Language 215 Productive Language 215 Syntactic Development: Putting Words Together 219

into Cognitive Performance 184 Modifying the A-not-B Task  184 Changing Sensory Feedback  184 Information Processing: Attention in Cognition 185

Phases of Attention  186 Selective Attention 187 Processing Information  189 Memory 189

❚ Contexts of Cognitive Development 192 Home Context of Cognitive Development 192 Socioeconomic Context of Cognitive Development 194 Cultural Context of Cognitive Development 195 Learning about the Social World 196

Understanding Others’ Attention 196 Gaze Following and Joint Attention 197 Pointing 198

Understanding Others’ Actions, Knowledge, and Beliefs 198 Interpreting Actions  198 Imitating Actions  200

Inferring Knowledge and Beliefs 201 ❚ Contexts of Social Cognition  202 Home Context of Social Cognition 202 Cultural Context of Social Cognition 203 Developmental Cascades 204 Closing Thoughts: Looking into the Mind of an Infant 206

Contents

xx

7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 249 Emotional Development 250 Evolutionary Theory and the Functions of Emotions 251

Parenting Context of Emotional Development 264 Cultural Context of Emotional Development 266

Social Development 267 Attachment 267

Evolutionary Views of Attachment 268 Ainsworth and the Strange Situation 270 ❚ Contexts of Attachment 272 Parenting Context of Attachment 272 Cultural Context of Attachment 272 Peer Relations and the Origins of Morality 275 Prosocial Behaviors 275 Moral Development and Aggression 276 Self-Identity 278 Aspects of Self 279 The Ecological and Interpersonal Selves 279 The Objective Self 280 ❚ Contexts of Self-Identity 281 Gender Socialization: Home Context 282 Gender Socialization: Cultural Context 284

Are Emotions Universal? 251 Are Emotions Adaptive? 251 Expressing Emotions 252

Infant Positive Emotions 252 Infant Negative Emotions 253 Understanding Emotions 255 Discriminating Emotions 255 Using Emotional Information 257 Regulating Emotions 259 Development of Infant Emotion Regulation 259 Effortful Control 259 Temperament 260 The History of Temperament Studies 260 Contemporary Models of Temperament 261 Stability in Temperament 262 ❚ Social and Cultural Contexts of Emotional Development and Temperament 263 Contexts of Infant Temperament and Goodness of Fit 263 8 Physical Development and Health in Early Childhood 292 Physical Development 293 Brain, Physical, and Motor Development 293 Brain Development 293 Physical and Motor Development 298 ❚ Home Context of Brain Development 301 Cultural and Historical Context of Physical Growth 302 Health 304 Nutrition 305 Food Acceptance and Healthy Diets 305 Childhood Obesity 306 ❚ Family Context of Nutrition 307

Developmental Cascades 285 Closing Thoughts: Cultivating Emotional and Social Competence 288

PART 3: EARLY CHILDHOOD

Sleep 308 Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns 308 How Much Sleep Do Young Children Need? 309 Family Context of Sleep 310 Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment 311 Infectious Diseases 312 Chronic Diseases 313 Unintentional Childhood Injury 314 Maltreatment and Exposure to Violence 315 Stress 316 ❚ Family Context of Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment 317 Neighborhood Context and Lead Exposure 319 Cultural Context of Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment 320 Developmental Cascades 322 Closing Thoughts: Promotion and Prevention 324

Contents   xxi

9 Cognitive and Language Development in Early Childhood 327 Cognitive Development 328 Piaget and the Preoperational Stage 328 Cognitive Achievements in the Preoperational Period 329 Cognitive Limitations  332 ❚ Cultural Context of Cognitive Development 337 Cognitive Development from an Information- Processing Perspective 337 Executive Functioning 338 The Semantic Piece of Long-Term Memory 341 Episodic Memory 343 ❚  Family Context of Information Processing 346 Preschool Context of Information Processing 347 Cultural Context of Information Processing 348 Social-Cognitive Development 349 Evaluating People’s Knowledge and Expertise 349 Reliability, Trustworthiness, and Familiarity 349 Weighing Familiarity against Reliability 350 Theory of Mind  350 False-Belief Understanding 350 Explaining Development in Children’s Theory of Mind 352 Lying, Deception, and Persuasion 353 ❚ Contexts of Social-Cognitive Development 354 Family Context of Social-Cognitive Development 354 School Context of Social-Cognitive Development 355 Cultural Context of Social-Cognitive Development 355 Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding 356 Grammar 357 Pragmatics 359 Literacy and Mathematical Understanding 359 Emergent Literacy: Reading and Writing  360 Emergent Math 360 ❚ Contexts: Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding 361 Home Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding 362 Family Socioeconomic Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Skills 364 Growing Language Skills 356 Phonology and Semantics 356

Preschool Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding 365 Cultural Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding 366 Developmental Cascades 370 Closing Thoughts: Preventing Inequities at the Starting Gate 372 10 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood 377 Emotional Development 378 Emotion Understanding 378 Complex and Mixed Emotions 378 The Causes and Consequences of Emotions 380 Emotion Regulation and Temperament 381 Emotion and Behavior Regulation 381 Individual Differences in Temperament  382 ❚ Contexts of Emotional Development 383

Parenting Context of Emotional Development 383 Sibling Context of Emotional Development 385 School Context of Emotional Development 386 Cultural Context of Emotional Development 388

Social Development 389 Attachment and Caregiver-Child Relationship Quality 389

Assessing Attachment in Young Children 389 Attachment and Quality of Parenting 391 Peers and Friends 391 Play with Peers and Friends  391 Family Context of Social Skills and Aggression 393 Cultural Context of Social Development 395 Identity Development 396 Gender Identity 396 ❚  Family Context of Gender Development 400 Biological Context of Gender Development 402 Ethnic and Racial Identities 403 Family Context and Racial and Ethnic Identity 404 Moral Development  406 Psychodynamic View: Freud and the Id 407 Cognitive Developmental View:

Piaget and Kohlberg  407 Social Domain View  409

Family Context of Moral Development 413 Cultural Context of Moral Development  413 Developmental Cascades 414 Closing Thoughts: Development Starts Small 417