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development. Relative to children who were adopted into foster homes, institutionalized children were smaller in size, failed to grow properly, were severely impaired in mental functioning, showed abnormal brain development, and displayed social and emotional disorders. Additionally, the severity of negative effects depended on developmental timing: the younger the age of foster care placement, the greater the recovery. The developmental disturbances that emerge under con- ditions of extreme deprivation illustrate how much can go wrong when infants do not receive the emotional and social supports that are foundational to development, and con- versely, howmuch typically goes right in the presence of lov- ing caregivers regardless of differences in childrearing prac- tices. In the sections that follow, you will learn about early changes in infant emotional expression, understanding, and regulation; the formation of attachment and social relation- ships; how a sense of self develops; and the emergence of morality. You will learn about the sources of individual dif- ferences in these areas, including biological bases of tempera- ment, variations in early social interactions, and differences in cultural beliefs and practices, and youwill come to appreciate the cascading effects of infants’ emotional and social develop- ment across developmental time and domains.

© Mike Abrahams/Alamy Stock Photo FIGURE 7.1  Romania’s abandoned children.  Infants reared in Romanian institutions in the 1980s led to the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, which investigated the consequences of severely neglectful rearing condi- tions on development. Institutionalized children showed impaired mental functioning, abnormal brain develop- ment, and social and emotional disorders relative to children who were adopted into foster homes.

■  Emotional Development Infant emotions are in constant flux. Over the course of a day, infants are at times joyful, content, frightened, or distressed. One minute an infant plays with a shape sorter, and the next, throws the shapes across the floor in frustration. A little while later, the infant cries in hunger, and then the cries are subdued by a bottle. When the baby unsuccessfully attempts to pull a book off a shelf, the loud crash of books ushers in a new wave of distress. Fortunately, a caregiver is nearby to offer comfort and a hug. Infants’ emotional experiences in these situations illustrate five fundamental components of emotions (Lewis, Sullivan, &Michalson, 1985; Saarni et al., 2007):  ● Emotion elicitors ( triggers ) . The failed attempt at placing a shape, pangs of hunger, and the crashing of books result in the infant’s emotional distress.  ● Physiological changes. The infant’s heart rate and breathing quicken with distress.  ● Cognitive appraisal. The loud bang is unexpected and signals potential danger. The infant reacts to and evaluates differences between what the infant is currently experiencing and what is familiar or desired.  ● Emotional expression. The infant cries, scrunches the face, and waves the arms.  ● Communicative function. The infant’s crying gets the attention of someone nearby, who offers a bottle or hug to relieve the distress. These five features of emotions are universal and adaptive; they charac- terize the experiences of people everywhere at all periods in life. However, emotional development undergoes a lengthy period of impressive change in the first years of life. PROPERTY OF OXFORD Tamis-LeMonda Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades 1E Sinauer Associates/OUP Morales Studio TAMIS1e_07.01 06-30-21

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