Invitation to World Religions

148  CHAPTER 4  Hinduism

storytelling. Even today, as in centuries past, professional storytellers continue to travel particular routes throughout India to visit local festivals, where they sing the epics and other myths in all-night performances. Modern Hindus enjoy sacred narratives through new and equally vibrant media, such as movies, television, and even comic books. Throughout the history of Hin- duism, there have been numerous versions of sacred narratives, the Ramayana being perhaps the most obvious example. In recent decades, sacred narratives have been invigorated through print, radio, and television, as well as the Internet, with ever- new and imaginative retellings of these ancient stories. Personal Identity and Gender Roles Hinduism’s diversity and inclusivity are reflected in the variety of gender identities and roles in Hindu society. The hijras—persons who identify as neither male nor female, and who recently have attained through a major decision by India’s Supreme Court the designation of a third gender—exemplify this diversity. Having in the past served as eunuch overseers of Mughal harems, hijras today occupy various posi- tions in society and enjoy newfound rights, although most work in the sex industry and are under the control of “gurus,” themselves older hijras. Many, but not all, are males by birth who have undergone castration or sex change. The fact that hijras are highly visible and, although often forced to endure some degree of harassment and social alienation, legally recognized in Indian society attests to modern Hinduism’s generally inclusive stance on gender identity. The same attitude holds, again in gen- eral, for Hinduism’s perspective on homosexuality. With regard to the roles of men and women, Hindu tradition has tended to be patriarchal, both subordinating and marginalizing women, while affording men far easier access to positions of authority. Some evidence in the Vedic literature suggests that some women participated in early philosophical movements or dialogues. But for the most part, throughout the history of Hinduism the public roles of women have been secondary to those of men. In the domestic sphere, however, Hindu women have played a significant role.

The Laws of Manu , in the course of its extensive coverage of varnashrama dharma , includes some statements that confer upon women a relatively high place; for example: “Where women are honoured, there the gods are pleased; but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards.” 13 At the same time, numerous passages in the Laws of Manu and other classical texts subordinate and marginalize women, clearly asserting the predominance of father, husband, and even sons. The bhakti movements enabled women to overturn social hierarchies. Women poets and saints such as Meera, who lived during the fifteenth century in Rajasthan, rejected marriage, devoted themselves to a spiritual life, and challenged the limits of gender, class, and caste. Today, Hindu women are increasingly assuming leadership roles in India and in the Indian diaspora. Women sometimes act as priests and are beginning to wield influence as spiritual teachers, monastics, and theologians. PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS