Invitation to World Religions

The Teachings of Hinduism  117

Renunciation is understood to be the most effective life situation for working to achieve moksha. As we have seen, attachment to objects of desire binds one to sam- sara. Renouncing, or no longer clinging to, such objects is empowering. By not in- dulging one’s desires for the impermanent things of this world, the true nature of the self (the atman) can be realized. Most renouncers are ascetics, celibate wanderers who engage in meditation and yoga. Some take formal vows and join a monastic order. Although estimates of the number of sannyasis vary, there may be as many as 15 million in India. The four stages define the ideal life for men. Women participate primarily in vaguely defined supporting roles through the last three stages and thereby assist in repaying the three debts. Some Hindu texts, including the Laws of Manu , empha- size that women hold a place of honor because of these roles. In general, however, Hindu society has been highly patriarchal. (The place of women in Hinduism is explored in more detail in a later section of this chapter.) The Four Aims of Life  Whereas the four stages of life describe an individual’s social and familial responsibilities from birth to death, the four aims of life set forth Hinduism’s primary spiritual purposes and goals. The four aims are dharma, duty or righteousness; kama, sensual enjoyment; artha , material wealth and social prestige; and moksha, liberation. A Hindu is meant to diligently pursue all four of these goals. As we have seen, dharma applies throughout life. Along with taking care to observe regulations governing everyday routines, some Hindus may take vows to practice nonviolence, perhaps maintaining a vegetarian diet as part of that goal. Others have strict rules for maintaining ritual purity or they observe a complex ritual regimen each day to ensure the harmony and well-being of their household and family members. The next two aims of life—kama and artha —apply especially to the second stage of life, that of the householder. Kama is directed at the fulfillment of desire. It encourages Hindus to enjoy the human experience and celebrate the sensual aspects of life. Artha , the pursuit of wealth and social prestige, is also encouraged. It is a Hindu’s duty not only to provide security for loved ones but also to savor and share life’s bounty. Of course, kama and artha must conform to dharma. Moksha, the ultimate aim of human existence, is the special focus of the last two stages of life (the forest-dwelling hermit and the renouncer). Having fulfilled the duties and obligations of student and householder, one is ready to turn inward, to contemplate the nature of the atman.

The four stages and the four aims of life represent traditional ideals intended primarily for upper-caste men. We do not know the extent to which the prescrip- tions of the stages and aims have been followed in the long history of Hinduism. These ideals, though to some extent impractical in today’s contemporary society, still inform the beliefs and practices of many Hindus. PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS