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268  CHAPTER 7

to caregivers when tired or distressed. The importance of early relationships can be traced to the writings of Erik Erikson (recall from Chapter 1 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development), who asserted over half a century ago that how infants resolve the psychological conflict of basic trust versus mis- trust depends on their connection to caregivers. Infants who experience lov- ing, positive relationships with their parents later develop trust in people and venture into a world that they view to be rewarding. In contrast, infants who do not experience affection and love may begin to mistrust others, engage in maladaptive behaviors such as withdrawal, and be ill-prepared to face the challenges of toddlerhood. Evolutionary Views of Attachment LEARNING OBJECTIVE 7.15  Analyze how the research of Bowlby and Harlow lent support to an evolutionary view of attachment. Around the same time that Erikson formulated his theory, John Bowlby and Harry Harlow, separately, wrote about the evolutionary roots of infant attach- ment. They noted that the love infants share with their caregivers extends beyond the need for nourishment and food, to desiring proximity and warmth. Infants’ biological desire to be close to people they love functions to ensure survival and protection. Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment The English psychiatrist John Bowlby’s interest in attachment grew out of his volunteer work in a residential school for maladjusted children. Bowlby was particularly inspired by his observations of two children. One adolescent had never had a stable relationship with a parent, and the second was anxious and clingy and followed Bowlby everywhere. This anecdotal experience motivated Bowlby’s later research at the London Child Guidance Clinic, where he com- pared juvenile thieves to a matched control group ( FIGURE 7.17 ). He found that the juvenile thieves were more likely to have been separated from their moth- ers for an extended period or to have been deprived of a mother’s care than juveniles in the control group (Bowlby, 1944). A few years later, the World Health Organization commissioned Bowlby to prepare a report on the fate of children without families in Europe. In his report, Maternal Care and Mental Health (Bowlby, 1951), Bowlby explained why orphaned infants and children were likely to suffer emotionally: …the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment. Bowlby’s clinical work with children in orphanages and refugee camps dur- ing World War II also influenced his theory of attachment. The initial distress of young children upon separation from their mothers gave way to despair and detachment. Separated children were emotionally disturbed, depressed, or listless, and were unable to develop normal relationships. Even when reunited with their mothers, they remained anxious and defensive (Bowlby, 1953). Bowlby’s observations led to his ethological theory of attachment (Bowlby, 1958, 1963): Attachment is an evolved response that aids the baby’s survival. Bowlby’s evolutionary account aligned with the theories of Konrad Lorenz, who wrote that certain animal species were genetically predisposed to fol- low whatever moving thing they saw during a specific critical period early in life, a phenomenon referred to as imprinting ( FIGURE 7.18 ). Imprinting led some species of newborn birds and mammals to follow their mothers every- where, thereby ensuring proximity to food and protection. Like Lorenz, Bowlby fied by Konrad Lorenz in which certain animal species are predis- posed to follow whatever moving thing they see during a critical period early in life PROPERTY OF OXFORD basic trust versus mistrust  The first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, in which infants learn to trust their caregivers From van der Horst. John Bowlby- From Psychoanalysis to Ethology: Unraveling the Roots of Attachment Theory . © 2011 Frank C. P. van der Horst. Wiley-Blackwell FIGURE 7.17  John Bowlby’s observations at the London Child Guidance Clinic.  John Bowlby’s clinical work with children deprived of parental care led to his ethological theory of attachment. Bowlby wrote about the emotional suffering of children who failed to experience the consistent, loving care that is core to survival. ethological theory of attachment  A theory posited by John Bowlby that claims attachment is an evolved response that aids infants’ survival imprinting  A phenomenon identi­

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Tamis-LeMonda Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades 1E Sinauer Associates/OUP Morales Studio TAMIS1e_07.17 06-30-21