Invitation to World Religions

130  CHAPTER 4  Hinduism

colonies of contemplatives, and others practiced strict ascetic disciplines in the soli- tude of the jungle. Still others became wanderers, going from town to town begging for food and engaging in lively philosophical debates. The Age of the Guptas Most scholars characterize the time of the Gupta Empire (c. 320–540 ce) as a period of remarkable creativity. The Guptas, who ruled much of northern India, patron- ized the arts, sciences, religion, and literature. Their reign was an era of relative peace and prosperity, often described as “the Golden Age of India.” The Gupta rulers practiced religious tolerance and sponsored groups and insti- tutions associated with Buddhism, Jainism, and other religions. The Guptas, who were themselves Hindus, promoted Hinduism and sought to organize society in accordance with Hindu beliefs. Thanks in part to Gupta patronage, the worship of Vishnu and Shiva became increasingly popular during this period, which also saw a shift from worship at open-air sacrificial altars to worship in temples. As temple institutions arose, so did special forms of temple art and architecture. These devel- opments quickened the spread of bhakti and the emerging devotional sects. A very significant religious development during the age of the Guptas was the rise of devotional Hinduism. The two great Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , had been completed and were well established by this time. As we have seen, these epics are concerned with political problems, dynastic successions, duty, and obligations. But they also feature the exploits of the gods and have much to tell us about popular deities and avatars and forms of devotion to them. Compo- sition of the Puranas commenced during this period, indicating the growing popu-

larity of devotional Hinduism. The Development of Bhakti

The devotional aspects of Hinduism became increasingly popular under the Guptas, but they took on new life in southern India between the sixth and ninth centuries ce through an ecstatic form called bhakti marga, the path of devotion. This move- ment eventually spread all over India, changing and adapting to new regional and linguistic circumstances. Devotion now came to be expressed through poetry, art, architecture, and temple building. Bhakti was instrumental in the development of the various sectarian orientations of Hinduism and in its vibrant temple cultures. By the late fifth century ce, Buddhism (Chapter 5) and Jainism (Chapter 6) were deeply entrenched in southern India. Bhakti arose as a challenge to these tradi- tions. Over the next four centuries, wandering poets roamed the countryside and converted royalty and commoners alike to the devotional ethos of bhakti. Royal patronage for Jainism and Buddhism waned, and kings sought legitimacy through poets’ songs that praised the kings as the representatives of the gods Shiva and Vishnu. The religious networks forged by the itinerant poets sometimes developed into political networks and strengthened alliances between religion and politics. PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS