Invitation to World Religions

120  CHAPTER 4  Hinduism

HINDU SACRED TEXTS

SHRUTI (“THAT WHICH IS HEARD”) Samhitas (“Collections”)

SMRITI (“TRADITION”) Dharma Shastras (including Laws of Manu ) Epics and Puranas

Rig Veda Yajur Veda Sama Veda Atharva Veda Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads

Ramayana Mahabharata (includes the Bhagavad Gita )

Bhagavata Purana Markandeya Purana

Darshanas (treatises of the philosophical schools) Tantras (scriptures of the various sects) Writings of Hindu gurus

Departing from the Vedic focus on ritual, and especially sacrifice, the Upani- shads feature philosophical speculation on the nature of the divine, the self, the world, and the relationships between them. These texts signal a significant shift away from emphasis on the external performance of sacrifice characteristic of the Vedic era. The Upanishads also mark a new stage in the development of religious texts, having been composed in part by people of nonbrahmin backgrounds. The newfound emphasis on philosophical speculation, no longer the sole domain of the brahmin class, had an enormous impact on the development of Hinduism. It pro- pelled the development of the contemplative disciplines of yoga and meditation and influenced the philosophical concepts found later in the Bhagavad Gita . The Upanishads are also significant for describing for the first time the concepts of karma, samsara, reincarnation of the soul, and the soul’s immortality, which were initially closely guarded secrets. We had occasion earlier in the chapter, when dis- cussing Brahman and the monistic concept that atman is Brahman, to draw from the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads . They are two among the thirteen so-called principal Upanishads (some scholars set this number at ten). Traditionally, there are 108 Upanishads, although the term has been applied to some 200 texts, some of which were written in recent times. Ramayana  For most Hindus, belief and practice are informed by and dissemi- nated through storytelling traditions and narrative texts. Two of the most signifi- cant of these texts are the Sanskrit epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , both of which are categorized as smriti rather than shruti — although this in no way di- minishes their relevance as Hindu sacred texts. Both epics are among the most im- portant sources of Hindu notions of duty, or dharma. PROPERTY OF OXFORD What advantages and disadvantages can you think of when comparing the flexibility of Hindu beliefs with that of other religions?

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