Invitation to World Religions

116  CHAPTER 4  Hinduism

“birth group.” Usually, a jati is composed of an endogamous group. One can marry within jati communities that are equal in social and ritual status, but not into a jati above or below one’s own position. Marriage across jatis is usually undertaken to widen communal alliances. Over time, the jati system has made social hierarchy more fluid. In modern times, the strictures of caste have broken down. Many Hindus have embraced a more egalitarian outlook formulated by nineteenth-century Hindu re- formers. These reformers regarded intercaste marriage as essential to bringing about social equality and the development of the Indian nation. In urban areas, caste status has often given way to a modern class-based system in which one’s marriage- ability is based on education, current employment, and financial status, rather than solely on caste. But caste remains a challenging issue for many Hindus, particularly those living in rural settings. The Four Stages of Life  Another main aspect of the varnashrama dharma system involves the ashrama, or “stage of life.” Traditional Hinduism describes four ashramas: 1. The student 2. The householder As affirmed by the Laws of Manu , the repository of dharma discussed earlier, fulfilling the duties of these stages is said to repay the following three debts of life: 1. To the ancient seers (by studying the revealed texts known as the Vedas) 2. To the gods (by making offerings as a householder) 3. To the ancestors (by having a son—again, as a householder—who will continue to perform ancestral rites) The specific regulations pertaining to each stage of life are meticulously spelled out in Hindu texts. For example, the Laws of Manu prescribes the ritual of initiation for boys who are about to enter the student stage: In the eighth year after conception, one should perform the initiation ( upana- yana ) of a bra- hmin , in the eleventh [year] after conception (that) of a ks ˙ atriya , but in the twelfth that of a vais , ya . 9 3. The forest-dwelling hermit 4. The renouncer (the sannyasi)

The student’s main duty is to acquire a sufficient understanding of the Vedas. Upon getting married, a Hindu enters the stage of the householder, whose duties include supporting those in the other three stages of life. Hindus in the last two stages focus primarily on seeking moksha or liberation, first by detaching themselves from the worldly concerns of the householder and then, once this detachment has been achieved, by entering the fourth stage of the renouncer, or sannyasi . PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS