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INVITATION TO WORLD RELIGIONS

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INVITATION TO

World Religions

JEFFREY BRODD California State University, Sacramento LAYNE LITTLE University of California, Davis BRADLEY NYSTROM California State University, Sacramento ROBERT PLATZNER California State University, Sacramento RICHARD SHEK California State University, Sacramento ERIN STILES University of Nevada, Reno

FOURTH EDITION

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Brodd, Jeffrey, author.

Title: Invitation to world religions / Jeffrey Brodd, California State University, Sacramento, Layne Little, University of California, Davis, Bradley Nystrom, California State University, Sacramento, Robert Platzner, California State University, Sacramento, Richard Shek, California State University, Sacramento, Erin Stiles, University of Nevada, Reno. Description: Fourth edition. | New York : Oxford University Press, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021014203 (print) | LCCN 2021014204 (ebook) | ISBN 9780197543788 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780197570722 (epub) | ISBN 9780197546499 Subjects: LCSH: Religions. Classification: LCC BL80.3 .B754 2022 (print) | LCC BL80.3 (ebook) | DDC 200—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014203 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014204 PROPERTY OF OXFORD

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BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface xix 1 An Invitation to the Study of World Religions 3 2 Indigenous Religions of North America 33 3 Indigenous Religions of Africa 67

4 Hinduism 101 5 Buddhism 157

6 Jainism 207 7 Sikhism 237 8 Chinese Religions: Confucianism and Daoism 267 9 Shinto 321 10 Zoroastrianism 351 11 Judaism 383 12 Christianity 445 13 Islam 505 14 New Religious Movements 569 Notes ​N-1 Glossary ​G-1 Credits ​C-1 Index ​I-1 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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CONTENTS

Preface xix

1

An Invitation to the Study of World Religions 3 APPROACHING THE STUDY OF WORLD RELIGIONS 4 Religion as a Subject of Academic Inquiry 5 WHAT RELIGIONS DO 10 Religious Questions and Challenges 12 Religion and Violence 19 Dimensions of Religions 20 Teachings 20 Historical Development 21 Way of Life 22 RELIGIONS IN THE MODERN WORLD 22 Modernization and Related Phenomena 23 Gender Issues in Religions 24 The Encounter of Religion and Science 25 AN ACADEMIC APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS 26 Balance and Empathy 26 Comparative and Multidisciplinary Approaches 27 CONCLUSION 29 Indigenous Religions of North America 33 THE TEACHINGS OF INDIGENOUS NORTH AMERICAN RELIGIONS 36 Creation and Origins 37 Life Lessons in Myths 40 The Importance of Balance: Humanity and the Natural World 41 Sacred Language and Sacred Time 44 VOICES: An Interview with Brian Melendez 45 THE HISTORY OF INDIGENOUS NORTH AMERICAN RELIGIONS 47

ix Religion in Early Civilizations and States 48 Conquest, Colonization, and Christianity 49 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2

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Resistance Movements and Social Justice 51 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: The World Turns to Standing Rock 54

Indigenous North American Religions and Non-Native Practitioners 55 INDIGENOUS NORTH AMERICAN RELIGIONS AS A WAY OF LIFE 55 Healing 56 Gender and Identity 57 Rites of Passage 58 Rites of Renewal and Rites of Purification 60 NORTH AMERICAN RELIGIONS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 61 CONCLUSION 62 3 Indigenous Religions of Africa 67 THE TEACHINGS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN RELIGIONS 71 Myths 71 Supernatural Beings: Gods and Spirits 72 VOICES: Interviews with Sammy Letoole and Festus Ogunbitan 73 Humanity and the Human Condition 77 THE HISTORY OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN RELIGIONS 79 Religion in Early Civilizations and States 79 The Spread of Islam 81 Christianity and Colonialism 82 Reform and Resistance 83 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: African Religions in the Americas 85 AFRICAN RELIGIONS AS A WAY OF LIFE 86 Communicating with the Spirit World 86 Using Supernatural Powers 89

Gender, Identity, and Life-Cycle Rituals 90 African Religions and the Natural World 95 AFRICAN RELIGIONS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 95 CONCLUSION 96 Hindu Beliefs about Divine Reality 103 The Individual and the Quest for Liberation 108 Three Paths to Liberation 110 Vedanta: The Predominant School of Hindu Philosophy 112 Yoga 114 The Individual and Society 114 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 4 Hinduism 101 THE TEACHINGS OF HINDUISM 103

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VOICES: An Interview with Jayashree Venkatesan 118 Hindu Sacred Texts 118 The Sects of Hinduism 124

THE HISTORY OF HINDUISM 126 The Indus Valley Civilization 126 Who Are the Aryans? 128 The Vedic Period 129 The Age of the Guptas 130 The Development of Bhakti 130 Tantra 131

Hindus and Muslims During the Mughal Dynasty 132 Colonial Critique and the Hindu Reformers 133 Gandhi and the Struggle for Indian Independence 135

Hindutva and Hindu Nationalism 136 Hindu Nationalism and Violence 137 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: From India to Iowa: Hinduism in the Heartland 138 HINDUISM AS A WAY OF LIFE 139

Temples and Icons 139 Forms of Worship 140 Rites of Passage 142 Pilgrimage 144

Festivals and Holidays 145 Performance Traditions 146 Personal Identity and Gender Roles 148 Hindu Environmentalism 149 HINDUISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 150 CONCLUSION 151

5 Mahayana Tradition 179 Buddhism in India 183 Buddhism Beyond India 183 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Buddhism 157 THE TEACHINGS OF BUDDHISM 159 The Life of the Buddha 159 What Did the Buddha Teach? 162 VOICES: An Interview with Katherine Sei 166 THE HISTORY OF BUDDHISM 167 The Period of the Buddhist Councils 168 Theravada Buddhism: The Way of the Elders 169 Mahayana Buddhism: The Great Vehicle 170 Vajrayana Buddhism: Tantric Buddhism in the

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BUDDHISM AS A WAY OF LIFE 189 Who Is a Buddhist? 189

Monks, Nuns, and Monastic Life 189 The Buddha’s Teachings on Ethics 190 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: The Emergence of Western Buddhism 191 Meditation 192 Chanting 193 Sacred Spaces and Objects 194 Holidays and Festivals 195 Buddhism, Concord, and Conflict 196 Buddhism, Gender, and Inclusion 197 Buddhism and the Environment 198

Funerary Rites 199 CONCLUSION 200 BUDDHISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 201

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Jainism 207 THE TEACHINGS OF JAINISM 210

Mahavira, the Twenty-Fourth and Last Tirthankara of This World Cycle 210 An Eternal Succession of Tirthankaras 212 Jainism and Hinduism 212 Ahimsa and Asceticism: Jainism’s Ideals 213

Theory of the Universe 214 Liberation and Salvation 217 THE HISTORY OF JAINISM 219

The Indian Historical Context 220 The Legacy of the Tirthankaras: Jainism Through the Centuries 220 Recent Developments in the Jain Tradition 221 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Jains Beyond India 222 Digambaras and Shvetambaras 223 VOICES: An Interview with Girish Shah 224 The Ascetic Life 226 Gender Roles in Jainism 229 The Religious Life of the Jain Laity 229 Jainism and the Natural World 231 JAINISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 232 CONCLUSION 233 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS JAINISM AS A WAY OF LIFE 223

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Sikhism 237 THE TEACHINGS OF SIKHISM 239 The Life of Guru Nanak 240 Sikh Scripture 243

On God, the Human Condition, and Spiritual Liberation 244 Teachings of Guru Gobind Singh and the Khalsa 247

THE HISTORY OF SIKHISM 248 Guru Nanak’s Successors 248

Guru Gobind Singh and the Khalsa 249 Sikhs in Conflict and in Search of Nationhood 251 Sikhs in the Diaspora 251 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: A Century of Sikhs in America 253 VOICES: An Interview with Onkar Singh 255 Daily Devotional Practices 256 Sikh Worship in the Gurdwara 257 Life-Cycle Rituals 258 Worship, Work, and Charity 259 Sikh Identity 261 SIKHISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 262 CONCLUSION 263 Ancient Chinese Religious Views 270 The Teachings of Confucianism 274 Patriarchy in the Confucian Tradition 283 The Teachings of Daoism 284 Women in Daoism 290 THE HISTORY OF CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM 291 The History of Confucianism 292 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Confucianism in Korea 297 The History of Daoism 298 SIKHISM AS A WAY OF LIFE 254 Chinese Religions: Confucianism and Daoism 267 THE TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM 270

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GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Daoism in Feng Shui and Martial Arts 303 CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM AS WAYS OF LIFE 304 Confucian Rituals 304 VOICES: An Interview with Jason Ch’ui-hsiao Tseng 306 Daoist Practices 308 Chinese Religions and the Environment 311 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Chinese Religions on Gender and Identity 312 CHINESE RELIGIONS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 313 CONCLUSION 314

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Shinto 321 THE TEACHINGS OF SHINTO 323 Creation Myth in the Kojiki  324 THE HISTORY OF SHINTO 329 Ancient Shinto 329 Medieval Shinto 329 The Modern Period 331

VOICES: An Interview with Minoru Watanabe 328

Ultranationalism, Imperialism, and Conflict 332

SHINTO AS A WAY OF LIFE 335

GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Anime and Shinto 336 Fertility Rites 337 Rites of Purification, Presentation, Petition, and Participation 337 Religious Observances Throughout the Year 341 Shinto and the Environment 344 SHINTO IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 344 Shinto on Gender Issues 345 CONCLUSION 347

10 Zoroastrianism 351

THE TEACHINGS OF ZOROASTRIANISM 353 Monotheism and Dualism 353 The Divine Realm 355 Creation and the Nature of the World 356 Human Nature and Human Destiny 358 THE HISTORY OF ZOROASTRIANISM 359 The Background of Zoroastrianism 359 Zarathushtra 360 Zoroastrian Scriptures 361 Zoroastrianism Through the Centuries 362 ZOROASTRIANISM AS A WAY OF LIFE 367 Ritual Practices 367 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Zoroastrianism in New York 368 VOICES: An Interview with Rustom Ghadiali 369 Holy Days and Rites of Passage 371 The Zoroastrian Community: Social and Ethical Responsibilities 374 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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ZOROASTRIANISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 377 CONCLUSION 378

11 Judaism 383

THE TEACHINGS OF JUDAISM 385 God 385 Torah 387 Covenant and Election 388 Israel 390

The Messiah and the Messianic Age 391 The Afterlife 391 Jewish Mysticism 392

THE HISTORY OF JUDAISM 394

Dispersion, Assimilation, and Collective Identity 395 The Biblical Period 395 The Second Temple Period 397 The Formative Age 399 The Conflict Between Judaism and Christianity 401 The Age of Philosophy and Mysticism 402 The Modern Era 407 Reform Movements in Europe and the United States 408 The Shoah and the State of Israel 412 Religious Conflict and the Future of Zionism 415 Diaspora Judaism Reinvents Itself 416 The Renewal Movement 417 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Judaism in India 419 VOICES: An Interview with Ms. Avigayil Halpern 423 The Minor Festivals 426 The Sabbath 428 Life-Cycle Events 429 Other Sacred Practices 433 Prayer 434 JUDAISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 436 CONCLUSION 438

JUDAISM AS A WAY OF LIFE 420 The Major Festivals 421 THE TEACHINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 447 The Life of Jesus 448 The Teachings of Jesus 450 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 12 Christianity 445

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Paul and the Mission to the Gentiles 452 God, Creation, and Original Humanity 453 God as Trinity 455 The Consequences of Sin 456 Grace and Salvation 457 The Church 458 VOICES: An Interview with Terrie M. and Father Art 458

Scripture 459 Tradition 461

“Last Things” 462 The Afterlife 462 Christianity and Other Religions: Points of Conflict 466

THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY 467 Christianity in the Roman World 467 The Church in the Middle Ages 472 The Reformation: Protestant Challenge and Roman Catholic Response 476 Christianity in the Modern World 480 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: The Kimbanguist Church in Africa 486 CHRISTIANITY AS A WAY OF LIFE 487 Worship 487 Sacraments 489 Church Interiors: Sacred Space 490 Prayer 492

The Liturgical Year 493 Veneration of Saints 494 Social and Political Activism 495

Christianity and the Environment 496 Christianity, Gender, and Inclusion 497 CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 498 CONCLUSION 499 PROPERTY OF OXFORD 13 Islam 505 THE TEACHINGS OF ISLAM 508

Muhammad and the Revelations 509 The Holy Qur’an 510 The Teachings of the Qur’an 511 Commentary on the Qur’an 515 The Sunna: The Example of the Prophet 515 The Five Pillars 516

THE HISTORY OF ISLAM 525

The Hijra and the Growth of the Muslim Community 526 The Crisis of Succession and the Rightly Guided Caliphs 528 UNIVERSITY PRESS

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The Umayyads and the Abbasids 530 Later Islamic Empires: The Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Safavids 531 Islam and Nationalism 532 Islamic Reform Movements 534 Varieties of Islam: The Sunni and the Shi‘a 538 Muslims in North America 540 Islam and Political Conflict in the World Today 542 Islam and Social Justice 543 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: Muslims in the West 545 VOICES: An Interview with Dola K. and Taslima S. 546 The Qur’an in Daily Life 548 What Is Jihad? 549 The Islamic Year and Holidays 550 The Shari‘a: Islamic Law 551 Sufism 552

ISLAM AS A WAY OF LIFE 546

Marriage and Family 556 Gender and Sexuality 558 Islam and the Natural Environment 561 ISLAM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 563 CONCLUSION 564 14 New Religious Movements 569

WHAT IS “NEW” ABOUT NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS? 570 Modernization, Globalization, and Secularization 571 Theoretical Models and Social Typologies 573 ALTERNATIVE CHRISTIANITIES AND THEIR OFFSHOOTS 575 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 575 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa 578 Christian Science and New Thought 578 Adventism 580 Jehovah’s Witnesses 582 The Family (Children of God) 583 The Unification Church 584 Rastafarianism 585 THE REDISCOVERY OF EASTERN RELIGIOUS THOUGHT 587 The Theosophical Society 587 ISKCON: The International Society for Krishna Consciousness 588 Transcendental Meditation 589 Falun Gong 590 PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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VOICES: An Interview with Dr. Xinyu David Zhang 592 Aum Shinrikyo: A Cult of Redemptive Violence? 592 THE REVIVAL OF ESOTERIC AND NEO-PAGAN THOUGHT 594 Eckankar 594 The Raelian Movement 595 The Church of Scientology 597 Wicca and the Return to Neo-paganism 599 THE EMERGENCE OF UNIVERSALIST RELIGIOUS THOUGHT 602 The Baha’i Faith 602 Unitarian Universalism 604 Spiritual Ecology 605 THE NEW ATHEISM 608 CONCLUSION 610

Notes ​N-1

Glossary ​G-1

Credits ​C-1

Index ​I-1

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PREFACE

THE WORLD’S RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS have offered answers to the weightiest questions of human existence, contributed to the formation of political and social institutions, inspired masterpieces of art and literature, and provided many of the cultural values and ideals on which entire civilizations have been based. Today, re- ligions continue to play a powerful role in shaping the ways in which people under- stand themselves, the world they live in, and how they should live. Invitation to World Religions welcomes students to the study of religion. In these pages, we open the doors and invite the reader to explore with wonder and respect. We describe the essential features of the world’s great religions and show how they have responded to basic human needs and to the cultural settings in which they developed. We also compare the answers religions have offered us regarding some of the most essential human questions: Why are we here? What is the nature of the universe? How should we live? Our aim has been to balance concision and sub- stance in an introductory text that is accessible, as well as challenging. A team of authors cooperated in writing this book, each one of us bringing a particular scholarly expertise—as well as years of teaching experience—to the re- spective chapters. We wrote with important learning goals in mind. We want stu- dents to gain an objective understanding of the beliefs and practices associated with the world’s religions, but we also encourage an empathetic appreciation of what their beliefs and actions actually mean to adherents. By emphasizing the connec- tions between religious traditions and their cultural contexts, we seek to heighten awareness of the extent to which religions have influenced, and been influenced by, politics and society, literature, the arts, and philosophy. We also examine the role of religions in our contemporary world, particularly the frequently uneasy boundaries between religion and science, urbanization, and globalization. A thoughtful reading of this book will provide a clear understanding of the characteristics that are unique to individual religions and highlight many of their shared qualities and concerns. Finally, we trust that every reader will find here a means of making sense of other ways of believing and living and of finding a solid basis for the tolerance and respect that are so critically important in times like ours. PROPERTY OF OXFORD

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Religions are multidimensional. Accordingly, all but the first and last chapters examine three primary aspects of each religion: teachings, historical development, and way of life (practices and experiences). These three aspects are presented in the same order in every chapter in which they appear. Although they appear in the same order, we do not devote equal attention to each category. To do so would be to ignore the varying nature of the religious traditions. Judaism, for example, naturally calls for extensive attention to historical development; Jainism, for which an early historical record barely exists, does not. In each case, we shape our coverage in the way that seems most natural given the characteristics of the tradi- tion under discussion. Teachings.  Commonly found in scriptures, myths, creeds, and ethical codes, the basic teachings of a religious tradition convey its answers to fundamental questions, such as: What is the human condition? How can the human condition be improved or transcended? What is the nature of the world? What is ultimate reality, and how is it revealed? Will there eventually be an end of the world, and if so, how and when? The authority on which a religion answers questions such as these is also important. Are its truths revealed? Are they the products of intellectual effort? Are they insights gained in moments of profound psychological experience? Or are they simply tradi- tional ways of looking at reality and our place within it that have been passed down from generation to generation? Historical Development.  Every religious tradition has a history that reveals how and why it developed its distinctive features, including its system of beliefs, leadership and governance structures, social institutions, and forms of artistic ex- pression. Sometimes the forces that generate change arise largely from within a tradition, as in the case of conflict between opposing sects or schools of thought. At other times they operate from the outside, as with the influence exerted by Western powers on foreign colonies and spheres of influence or through the expan- sion of a tradition into a new cultural milieu. A religion’s history also functions to unite the individual with others in a shared memory of the past that helps to explain the present.

Way of Life.  By way of life we mean practices—the things people do in making practical application of their beliefs, such as engaging in prayer, meditation, com- munal worship or various other forms of ritual, or working to enhance social justice or to care for the environment. Closely related to practices are modes of experience, the ways in which a religion’s adherents actually experience the consequences of applying its teachings. These might include a sense of inner peace, a more acute sense of community with others, a greater awareness of the divine, or a state of profound enlightenment. PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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ORGANIZATION Our survey begins in Chapter 1 with an introductory essay on the academic study of religions. After considering what religion is , the chapter identifies some of the other important questions scholars ask: What do religions do? What issues of uni- versal concern do they address? What do scholars mean when they speak of mystical experience or of transcendence? What are the constituent parts of religious tradi- tions? How are religions today being affected by the forces of modernization, urban- ization, globalization, and science? What is the relationship between religion and such issues as gender identity and roles, environmental causes, and violence? Finally, the chapter explains why a multidisciplinary approach is necessary in any serious attempt to understand the world’s religions. Chapter 1 is followed by two chapters on indigenous traditions. The book con- cludes with a chapter on new religions. The ten chapters in the middle are organized according to geographical and (roughly) chronological order, as follows: first, the religions of South Asian origin (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism); next, those of East Asian origin (Chinese religions, Japanese religions); and, finally, those of West Asian (or Middle Eastern) origin (Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam). By studying the indigenous traditions first, students will gain an apprecia- tion not only for the many living traditions that continue to thrive but also for certain ways of being religious (such as emphasis on oral transference of myths and other sacred lore) that at one time were predominant in most of today’s major world religions. By studying new religions last, students will likewise gain an appreciation for living traditions, along with glimpsing the sorts of innovations that occur within the old traditions, too, as religions respond to the cultural, technological, social, and cultural changes and challenges of the world around them. NEW TO THE FOURTH EDITION • Twenty-first century boxes We’ve created a new feature highlighting in a con- centrated manner how each religion is manifested in contemporary times, as reflected in population figures and current trends. These boxes are consistently located at the end of each chapter, allowing for easily accessible information on the state of the religion today.

• Focus on religion and the environment In response to reviewer suggestions and the great and growing interest in ecological issues, each chapter includes substantive consideration of the religion’s stance on the environment and on activities aimed at caring for the natural world. Religions that regard nature itself as sacred would seem to be inherently environmentally conscientious; but all religions, especially lately, embrace in one way or another ecological causes. • Enhanced consideration of gender roles and personal identity Moving beyond stand-alone sections on “Women and Religion” and attending to PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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perspectives both traditional and modern, each chapter clarifies gender roles and examines forces that have brought about transformations. Issues involving sexuality and gender identity are also explored. • A more uniform writing style and improved images and graphics We have continued to streamline and clarify the presentation of material, particularly in response, once again, to many helpful reviewer suggestions. We also have re- placed photos and updated maps and other graphic features to improve both the appearance and the substance of the book.

Along with the general features described here, chapter-specific revisions of par- ticular note include the following:

• Chapter 1, “An Invitation to the Study of World Religions,” features new con- sideration of various issues: eschatology and religious perspectives on the fate of the natural world; the place of environmentalism and spiritual ecology within religions; and gender roles and personal identity. • Chapter 2, “Indigenous Religions of North America,” and Chapter 3, “Indig- enous Religions of Africa,” include expanded sections on historical events and processes, both precolonial and postcolonial. • Chapter 5, “Buddhism,” has been extensively revised to present a clearer and more inviting explanation of conceptually challenging ideas, especially in Ma- hayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. • Chapter 14, “New Religious Movements,” features a more streamlined presen- tation on typological approaches and, in its new section on spiritual ecology, examination of the Findhorn Foundation in Scotland, one of the West’s most successful ecovillages. FEATURES AND PEDAGOGY Because the concepts and contexts of the world’s religions are immeasurably complex, we have worked to present a clear and accessible introductory text. Our tone throughout, while deeply informed by scholarship, is both accessible and appropriate for a wide range of undergraduate students. Consistent chapter structure also helps students to focus on content inasmuch as they do not have to navigate each chapter anew. With the exception of Chapters 1 and 14, every chapter in the book includes three core modules: the teachings of the religion, the history of the religion, and the religion as a way of life. This modular and predictable structure is also highly flexible, allowing instructors to easily create a syllabus that best reflects their own scholarly interests, as well as their students’ learning needs. The study of religions can be daunting to newcomers, who must plunge into a sea of unfamiliar words, concepts, and cultures. For this reason, we have provided a PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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variety of ways for students to engage with important ideas, personalities, and visuals: Voices: In personal, candid interviews, a diverse array of people share the ways they live their faith. Global Snapshot: Highlights how each religion is reflected in a globalized world or as it is lived in diasporic communities. Visual Guide: A key to important religious symbols, provided in an easy-to- read table for quick reference and comparison, is included in each “Way of Life” section. Maps and Timelines: Each chapter begins with a map to provide geographical context for a religion’s development. Key features and places mentioned in the chapter are called out on the map. A timeline at the beginning of each chapter provides social and political context to help students situate each religion and trace its development. Finally, a comprehensive timeline of all the main reli- gions covered in the book appears on the inside front and back covers. Seeking Answers: After each chapter’s Conclusion, we revisit three essential ques- tions that religions strive to answer. This feature helps students to review the chap- ter’s key concepts and informs their ability to compare constructively the ways in which different religions address the same fundamental human questions:

What is ultimate reality? How should we live in this world? What is our ultimate purpose?

Other elements that facilitate teaching and learning include the following:

Glossary: Important terms are printed in bold type at their first occurrence and are explained in the Glossary that follows each chapter, with pronuncia- tion guides as needed. In addition, a glossary at the back of the book includes all of the key terms from the entire text. End-of-Chapter Questions: Each chapter concludes with two sets of questions to help students review, retain, and reflect upon chapter content. For Review questions prompt students to recall and rehearse key chapter concepts; For Further Reflection questions require students to think critically about the chapter’s nuances and encourage both discussion and personal response by in- viting students to engage in a more penetrating analysis of a tradition or taking a comparative approach. Suggestions for Further Reading: These annotated lists of some of the best and most recent works on each tradition, as well as online resources, encourage students to pursue their exploration of the world’s religions. PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Rich, robust, and relevant visuals: Finally, we have filled the pages of Invita- tion to World Religions with an abundance of color photographs and illustra- tions that add visual experience to our verbal descriptions of sacred objects, buildings, art, and other material aspects of religious life. SUPPLEMENTS A rich set of supplemental resources is available to support teaching and learning in this course. The Oxford University Press Oxford Learning Link (OLL) at http://www. oup.com/he/brodd4e houses the following Instructor’s Resources : • A LMS Test Bank, including multiple-choice, true/false, fill-in-the-blank, and essay questions • An Instructor’s Manual, including • A “pencil and paper” version of the LMS Test Bank • Chapter Summaries • Chapter Learning Objectives • Suggested Web Links and other Media Resources • Web Links to Sacred Texts, accompanied by brief descriptions of their content • Lists of Key Terms and their definitions from the text • PowerPoint lecture outlines • PowerPoint art database • Oxford Learning Link Direct cartridges to import Instructor and Student Resources into Canvas, Blackboard, D2L, and Moodle. • Enhanced eBook, which integrates the text’s narrative with a rich assortment of interactive content (video, timelines, maps) and self-assessment • Student Quizzes • Suggested Web Links and other Media Resources • Web Links to Sacred Texts • Flashcards of Key Terms from the text • Video clips on significant beliefs, practices, and places related to a variety of traditions covered in Invitation to World Religions , accompanied by multiple- choice questions

The Student Resources on the OLL contain the following: • Interactive timelines of the world religions, including comparisons between Indian, Chinese, and Abrahamic religions, accompanied by multiple-choice questions PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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• Interactive maps of key locations for the world religions, accompanied by mul- tiple-choice questions • Access to Oxford Insight Study Guide OPTIMIZE STUDENT LEARNING WITH THE OXFORD INSIGHT STUDY GUIDE All new print and digital copies of Invitation to World Religions , Fourth Edition, in- clude access to the Oxford Insight Study Guide, a data-driven, personalized digital learning tool that reinforces key concepts from the text and encourages effective read- ing and study habits. Developed with a learning-science-based design, Oxford Insight Study Guide engages students in an active and highly dynamic review of chapter content, empowering them to critically assess their own understanding of course ma- terial. Real-time, actionable data generated by student activity in the tool helps in- structors ensure that each student is best supported along their unique learning path. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book has been a long time in the making. Along the way, family members, friends, and colleagues have supported us with love, patience, insights, and sugges- tions. We also are grateful to the people who kindly granted us interviews. Although there is no way we can adequately thank them here, we can at least acknowledge them: Edward Allen, Dr. Onkar Bindra, Jill Brodd, Jon Brodd, Mary Chapman, Linda Dekker, Tunay Durmaz, Lin Estes, Rev. Dr. Christopher Flesoras, Rustom Ghadiali, Avigayil Halpern, Dola Haque, George and Kausalya Hart, Kathleen Kelly, Hari Krishnan, Sammy Letoole, Ray and Marilyn Little, Terrie McGraw, Brian Melendez, Watanabe Minoru, Annie Nystrom, Festus Ogunbitan, Susan Orr, Mia Sasaki, Katherine Sei, Girish Shah, Taslima Shams, Kitty Shek, Davesh Soneji, Jason Ch’ui-hsiao Tseng, Archana Venkatesan, Krishna and Jayashree Ven- katesan, Father Art Wehr, S.J., Dr. Xinyu David Zhang, and members of the Sacra- mento Dharma Center. We have also benefited immensely from the hard work and good suggestions of colleagues across the country. In particular, we would like to thank:

Jeanine Viau, University of Central Florida Jason Sprague, University of Michigan–Dearborn Sharon Coggan, University of Colorado–Denver T. Christopher Hoklotubbe, Cornell College North Carolina–Pembroke Kenneth Claus, Miami Dade College Donald Stikeleather, Marian University PROPERTY OF OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Andrew Christian van Gorder, Relations, Baylor University Mordechai Inbari, University of

xxvi Preface

Kenneth Bass, Central Texas College Robert Pennington, Mount St. Joseph University

Barbara Hornum, Drexel University Joseph S. Wadas, Georgia Southern University

We extend our special thanks to Yaroslav Komarovski of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, who so generously provided valuable suggestions, and to Ravi Gupta of Utah State University, who responded so very helpfully to our request for expert advice. We would also like to acknowledge the suggestions of reviewers for the first, second, and third editions, which continued to inform our work on this new edition:

Asad Q. Ahmed, Washington University in St. Louis Kenneth Atkinson, University of Northern Iowa Kenneth Bass, Central Texas College John Baumann, University of Oregon Todd M. Brenneman, University of Central Florida Robert E. Brown, James Madison University David Bush, Shasta College Dexter E. Callender, Jr., University of Miami Kenneth Claus, Miami Dade Col- lege–Kendall Campus John L. Crow, Florida State University Philip R. Drey, Kirkwood Commu- nity College–Cedar Rapids James Ford, Rogers State University Matthew Hallgarth, Tarleton State University Kathleen Hladky, Florida State University T. Christopher Hoklotubbe, Cornell College

Barbara Hornum, Drexel University Mordechai Inbari, University of North Carolina–Pembroke Jon Inglett, Oklahoma City Com- munity College Maria Jaoudi, California State University–Sacramento Jeffrey Kaplan, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh Brad Karelius, Saddleback College Kate S. Kelley, University of Missouri–Columbia Erik Larson, Florida International University Mirna Lattouf, Arizona State University Peter David Lee, Columbia College Iain S. MacLean, James Madison University Wade Maki, University of Toledo Isabel Mukonyora, Western Ken- tucky University Benjamin Murphy, Florida State University–Panama City Samuel Murrell, University of North Carolina, Wilmington Rachel Nabulsi, Georgia Gwinnett College

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Preface xxvii

Tom Norris, Florida International University Robert Y. Owusu, Clark Atlanta University Robert Pennington, Mount St. Joseph University Arlette Poland, College of the Desert Marialuce Ronconi, Marist College John Sanders, Hendrix College Claudia Schippert, University of Central Florida Paul G. Schneider, University of South Florida Joshua Shelly, University of Illinois–Urbana-Champaign Adam Herbert Smith, McPherson College Theresa S. Smith, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Glenn Snyder, Indiana University– Purdue University Indianapolis

Phillip Spivey, University of Central Arkansas Donald Stikeleather, Marian University Dennis P. Tishken, Eastern Florida State College Hugh B. Urban, Ohio State University Andrew Christian van Gorder, Baylor University Joseph S. Wadas, Georgia Southern University James W. Ward, James Madison University Keith Welsh, Webster University Mlen-Too Wesley, Pennsylvania State University–Altoona David Wisdo, Columbus State University James A. Zeller, San Joaquin Delta College

Finally, we owe a debt of gratitude to the editorial staff at Oxford University Press. Our thanks go to Andy Blitzer, Acquisitions Editor for Philosophy and Reli- gion, who has overseen development of the Fourth Edition, with assistance from Leslie Anglin, Rachel Boland, Jaime Burns, and Peter Lacey. We are very grateful for their diligent work. The previous editions were overseen by then Executive Editor Robert Miller, who originally invited us to publish with Oxford and who put us in the excellent care of Senior Development Editor Meg Botteon, whose profes- sionalism and skill were an essential guiding force. Our thanks also go to Brad Rau for managing the final stages of the book’s production. PROPER Y OF OXFORD

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4

Hinduism

THE SKIES OVER MUMBAI are clearing and the sun is poking through the clouds, shedding rays of light on the throng of worshipers that crowd to behold the Lalbaugcha Raja sculpture of Ganesha, the elephant god. It is the last day of Ganesh Chaturthi, the ten-day festival celebrated across India in honor of Ganesha’s birthday. Most of those gathered had already performed puja , or worship, in their homes this morning, praying before temporarily installed clay idols of the god. There and in the presence of the Lalbaugcha Raja Ganesha sculpture and many other sculptures located around the city, all having been specially prepared for the festival, Ganesha is offered his favorite foods. At this unique temporary shrine, an exquisite idol of the god, created by a master sculptor especially for this year’s festival, is colorfully painted and adorned with flowers. Bhajan and kirtan , sacred devotional songs, are per- formed in the god’s honor. The shrine is alive with the music and the vibrant colors that seem to adorn most everything, including the worshipers. The entire city of Mumbai teems with life during Ganesh Chaturthi, one of India’s most popular celebrations. Neighborhoods like Lalbaugcha sponsor their own production of Ganesha sculptures, competing with each other over the best artistic creation. With his elephant head and human body, Ganesha is one of Hinduism’s most easily recognized deities. As the patron deity of arts and sciences and the god of wisdom, new beginnings, and commerce, he is especially vener- ated by students, writers, travelers, and businessmen. He is worshiped at the PROPERTY OF OXFORD

A Ganesha sculpture is about to be submerged at the seashore in Mumbai on the tenth and final day of Ganesh Chaturthi, a celebration of the elephant god’s birthday.

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beginning of every new undertaking, and he is the first deity invoked in almost any Hindu ritual context. Ganesha, known as the Remover of Ob- stacles, is often depicted as carrying objects in his four arms (including an axe, a noose, and an elephant goad) that he uses to destroy, subdue, or control the obstacles of life. He also often holds a bowl of sweets, symbolizing his benevo- lent and loving nature. Later this afternoon, at the conclusion of Ganesh Chaturthi, the shrine’s clay idol will be carried in a procession to the seashore and, to the accompaniment of music, will be submerged in the ocean where it will soon dissolve, becom- ing one with the natural world and thereby nour- ishing it. The worshipers celebrate this event, as Ganesha is believed now to return home to his parents, Shiva and Parvati, who live on Mount Kailash high in the Himalayas. 4 U nlike many other religions dis- cussed in this book, Hinduism has neither a single founder nor a single sacred book. There is no single historical event that marks its birth. The history of Hinduism embodies both continuity and change. Having never had a sole central au- thority, Hinduism’s fluid character has always allowed it to adapt to a variety of social and cultural contexts. This diversity has led many scholars to argue that Hindu- ism is not one religion at all but a constella- tion of many religious sects that share some common aspects. Others see enough by way of common beliefs and practices to regard Hinduism as a single religious tradition. In this chapter, we will explore Hinduism’s variety of sects, beliefs, and practices and seek to understand what unites a tradition that is the religion of over 1 billion of the world’s people.

T IMEL INE Hinduism

2600–1700 bce Indus Valley Civilization. 2000–1300 bce Migration into Northwest India of Indo- Aryans. c. 1200 bce Rig Veda.

c. 1200–900 bce Later Vedas. c. 900–200 bce Upanishads. 400 bce –400 ce Mahabharata . 200 bce –200 ce Ramayana . c. First century ce Bhagavad Gita .

100–500 ce Expansion of Hinduism into Southeast Asia. c. 320–540 Gupta Dynasty; rise of Hindu temple culture. 300–500 Earliest Puranas; Hindu law books. 700 Flourishing of bhakti in the South. 999–1226 Mahmud of Ghazi; repeated raids of India. Fifteenth century Bhakti movement begins in northern India. 1651 The East India Company opens first factory on the Hugli River in Bengal. 1786 Sir William Jones lectures on the common ancestry of Sanskrit and many European languages. 1828 Brahmo Samaj founded by RamMohan Roy. 1834–1886 Sri Ramakrishna. 1869–1948 Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi. 1875 Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. 1893 Swami Vivekananda at the World Parliament of Religions, Chicago. 1925 RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) founded. 1947 India gains independence; partition with newly established nation of Pakistan. 1964 VHP (Vishwa Hindu Parishad) founded. 1992 Destruction of Babri Masjid and widespread riots. 2014 BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) wins Indian elections by a landslide. c. 1398–1518 Kabir, bhakti poet. 1526–1757 Mughal rule in India.

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The Teachings of Hinduism  103

THE TEACHINGS OF HINDUISM Prior to the nineteenth century, the word Hinduism did not exist. Most Hindus identified themselves by their sec- tarian orientation and their communal or caste affiliations. The word Hindu was initially used by the ancient Persians to describe the people who lived beyond the Indus River in the northwestern corner of the Indian subcontinent. When, by 325 bce, Alexander the Great had crossed the Indus, Greeks adopted the Persian convention of calling the river the “Indos” and the land beyond it “India.” In the centuries that followed, the term Indu or Hindu became a territorial, as well as a racial, social, and cultural, designa- tion for the people of India. Beginning in the seventeenth century ce, the word appeared occasionally in Indian lit- erature to distinguish “Hindus” from Muslims or other “foreigners.” Although the “‑ism” was added to “Hindu” in the early 1800s, only toward the end of the nineteenth cen- tury did the word Hinduism become widely used by Hindus themselves. Some Hindus look to the authority of a group of texts known as the Vedas , India’s oldest scriptures, and may rely on brahmin priests to officiate at various rituals. Others reject the centrality of the Vedas and brahmins. Some

A photograph taken of a Hindu temple in Trinidad in 1931. The presence of Hindus in the Caribbean and South America can be traced back to the nineteenth century, when Hindus came as

Hindus join organizations devoted to saints or sages. Others seek solitude to prac- tice contemplation, meditation, or yoga. Some Hindus believe that God is a divine person with identifiable attributes. Others say that divine reality is so expansive as to be beyond all description. Despite Hinduism’s diversity, it is possible to identify common core concepts in which most every Hindu believes. For instance, the law of karma determines the nature of one’s incarnations in samsara , the continuing cycle of death and rebirth. At the end of this cycle is moksha , or liberation, the final release from the trials and tribulations of samsara. For the sake of simplicity, in this chapter we have organized our investigation of Hindu teachings around five main topics: beliefs about divine reality; the individu- al’s quest for liberation and the primary means of making this quest; the place of the individual within society; Hindu sacred texts; and Hinduism’s main sects. Hindu Beliefs about Divine Reality In keeping with Hinduism’s general diversity, Hindu beliefs about divine reality are wide ranging. Indeed, one of the most fundamental differences in Hinduism is the split between monistic and dualistic or devotional viewpoints. Monism, as ex- plained in this book’s introductory chapter, is the doctrine that all reality is indentured work- ers on sugar cane plantations. PROPERTY OF OXFORD

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EUROPE

NORTH AMERICA

ASIA

AFRICA

SOUTH AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

World Hindu population (%)

0 km

2000 4000

2000

4000

0 miles

1–15 15–55 55–70 70–100

World Hindu population.

ultimately one. It is nondualistic in that there is no distinction between the divine reality and the rest of reality. The Hindu dualistic viewpoint, in contrast, under- stands divine reality as God, a personal being separate from the rest of reality. This means that God is separate from the individual, and therefore devotion to God is natural. Devotional practice of this sort is a primary religious activity of Hindus who hold this dualistic viewpoint. The majority of Hindus understand divine reality in this dualistic manner. Names of the Divine Reality  Hindus refer to divine reality in a variety of ways. In this chapter, in order to maintain clarity between references to the monistic and the dualistic viewpoints, we use two distinct terms. When referencing monism, we use the term Brahman (Sanskrit, “expansive”) to denote the divine reality, which monistic Hindus believe is the supreme, unitary reality that is the source of all being and all knowing. When referencing dualistic or devotional Hinduism, we use either “God” or the name of the specific deity under consideration. In actual Hindu practice, conventions of naming the divine are often not so simple as our chapter’s use of these two distinct terms might imply. Sometimes monistic Hindus, for example, refer to Brahman as “God.” Many dualistic Hindus use “God” to denote a universal being that encompasses all the various deities wor- shiped in Hinduism, and sometimes they use “Brahman.” When dualistic Hindus refer to a particular deity, they often use the specific name, such as Krishna, Rama, PROPERTY OF OXFORD

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